Morocco

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Morocco has been a country of emigration since the 1960s, with 2014 seeing 2.8 million Moroccans moving abroad (UNECA, 2014). Initially, low-skilled workers migrated to France, Belgium, and the Netherlands, and then a shift occurred towards high-skilled workers moving to the United States and Canada. This shift also helped to change people’s perception of Moroccans as guest workers to Moroccans as more permanent settlers in their new countries. Within Morocco, internal migration has seen people moving to urban city centres, where about 63.5% of the population lives. The economic and social opportunities provided in city centres attract the rural population.

From a continental perspective, to strengthen South-South migration, Morocco seeks to desecuritise migration through regional frameworks (Abourabi, 2022). For example, Morocco has adopted an integrative migration policy framework, and within the ECOWAS region, Morocco has already abolished visas for 11 out of 15 countries (ibid). Significant efforts are being made to adopt a more humanitarian approach to migration and migration policy implementation, including the 2013 National Strategy on Immigration and Asylum by the Council of Government. However, implementation has not always been successful, and poor treatment of migrants, police raids, and human rights abuses continue to occur (Jacobs, 2019).

Thousands of people from the African continent and beyond who want to cross the Mediterranean borders irregularly for better opportunities in Europe regard Morocco as a migration junction because of its geographic location in North Africa. However, not all migrants who embark on this journey to Europe via the Mediterranean make it. As a result, an increasing number of migrants settle in Morocco, particularly in cities like Tangiers, Casablanca, and Rabat, where they sometimes find job opportunities (De Haas, 2005). 

MIGRATION POLICIES

The general legal frameworks for migration in Morocco include the 2011 Moroccan Constitution, the 2004 Judgment of the Court of First Instance of Tetouan on the crime of illegal immigration and emigration, the 2003 Law n°02-03 on the entry and stay of foreign nationals into Morocco, the 2003 Law n°65-69 on the Labour Code, and the 1958 Code of Moroccan Nationality modified in 2007 (Migration Policy Centre, 2013). Law 02-03 introduced several provisions aimed at penalising illegal emigration and immigration, and protections and guarantees provided for in international law, in particular those rights pertaining to children and refugees or protection against torture (Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Network – EMHRN, 2012). However, some of the provisions contradict the very same international law, specifically those pertaining to residence permits for refugees whose entry into the country is legal.

The above-mentioned legislative framework ensures most of the fundamental rights of asylum seekers and refugees, especially the right to stay, access to health care and education, and access to work under certain conditions. However, the suspension of the BRA (the office for refugees and stateless persons) and the subsequent development of administrative practices that contradict Moroccan law violate the fundamental rights of asylum seekers and refugees (ibid). The suspension of the BRA has prevented the issuance of residence permits to all refugees recognised as such since 2004, regardless of whether they have entered Morocco legally or illegally. Furthermore, applying for a work visa is contingent on proving legal status, and without proper documentation, asylum seekers and refugees are unable to work in Morocco (ibid).

In 2013, Morocco announced its intention to adopt a more humanitarian approach to migration and asylum, which included the establishment of a ministerial department for migration affairs, a regularisation programme for undocumented individuals living in Morocco, the distribution of the first round of refugee and asylum seeker cards, and the adoption of the 2013 National Strategy on Immigration and Asylum by the Council of Government (Jacobs, 2019). Despite the efforts to adopt new legislation and policies, the poor treatment of migrants continues, including police raids and human rights abuses toward sub-Saharan migrants. 

Morocco is also a party to the following international instruments that have an impact on refugees and migrants: the 1951 Refugee Convention, the ILO Migrant Workers (Supplementary Provisions) Convention of 1975 (No. 143), the 1989 United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, and the 1990 United Nations International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of all Migrant Workers and Members of their Families. 

GOVERNMENTAL INSTITUTIONS

The main government institutions responsible for migration policy in Morocco include the Ministry of the Interior, the Ministry of Labour, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation, the Ministry of Justice, the Delegated Ministry in Charge of Moroccans Residing Abroad, the Council of Moroccan Community, and the Advisory Council on Human Rights (Migration Policy Centre, 2013).

The Ministry Delegate to the Minister of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation, in charge of Moroccans Abroad and Migration Affairs (MDCMREAM), is responsible for formulating and coordinating migration policies, and several ministries, including the ministries of the Interior, Employment, Justice, Education, Foreign Affairs and Cooperation, participate in the implementation of these policies (IOM, 2017). However, specific ministries are tasked with specific responsibilities. For example, the Ministry of the Interior plays a vital role in managing national migration policy and security, which included the coordination of regularisation campaigns for irregular migrants in 2014 and the institution of measures to combat human trafficking and smuggling in 2017 (UNHCR, 2019). 

INTERNAL MIGRATION

Internal migration in Morocco has increased steadily. In 1958, 25% of the population lived in cities; by 1982, it doubled to 50%, and by 2018, it stood at 62% (Berriane et al., 2021). Rural-urban migration has since become the dominant form of internal migration in Morocco (Bouoiyour et al., 2017). Here, internal migration followed a hierarchical, multi-layered pattern, with people migrating from villages to smaller rural towns, from rural towns to medium-sized cities, and from medium-sized cities to towns, regional capitals, and big cities (Berriane et al., 2021).

The push factors from rural areas include reduced water supply, lack of arable land or degraded land in rural areas, and inadequate health care and education services in comparison to urban areas. While urban-rural migration has slowed down, inter-urban migration has increased as Moroccans are migrating from regional cities and big cities to medium and small ones as a result of the increasing cost of living, traffic congestion in the big cities, and increased development in the small and medium cities (Berriane et al., 2021). Over the next couple of years, it is believed that Morocco will slowly transition from a predominantly rural country to a more modern urban community (Bouoiyour et al., 2017).

Internal migration in Morocco is driven by, inter alia, poverty, labour market dynamics, and the lack of livelihood opportunities. Rural employment is often constrained due to the scarcity of land, as the economy in rural areas is focused on agriculture, and low agricultural productivity poses a threat to sustaining the economy in rural areas (ibid). Internal migration in Morocco is driven by the search for economic opportunities, urban development, and rural challenges.

INTERNALLY DISPLACED PERSONS, CONFLICT AND DISASTERS

Recently, internal displacement in Morocco has been characterised by disaster-related displacements. The Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre noted that there were an estimated 500,000 displaced people in Morocco in 2023 (IDMC, 2024).

The most recent disaster in Morocco was the earthquake in the Al Haouz province in September that displaced thousands of people (Data Friendly Space, 2023). Unlike in other parts of the continent where conflict-related displacements happen frequently, in Morocco, displacement is predominantly disaster-related and very episodic. In addition to destroying facilities, disasters also destroy people’s livelihoods, especially in the agricultural sector.

IMMIGRATION

The country’s strategic location between Europe and sub-Saharan Africa makes it both a destination and transit country for immigrants, especially within the context of African, European, and Middle Eastern migration flows. The international migrant stock was estimated to be 72,200 in 2010 (0.2% of the Moroccan population), 92,400 in 2015 (0.3% of the Moroccan population), 102,400 in 2020 (0.3% of the Moroccan population), and 11,100 in 2024 (UN DESA, 2025). Although as a percentage of the population, the immigrant population has been stable over the past two decades, there has been a steady increase in the absolute number of immigrants in the country. The top five origin countries of immigrants in Morocco are France, Algeria, Spain, the Syrian Arab Republic, and Tunisia (ibid).

An important immigrant community in Morocco is the student immigrant group. According to the Moroccan Agency for International Cooperation (AMCI), which grants scholarships in Morocco, the country hosts about 12,000 sub-Saharan students from 47 different African countries (Abourabi, 2022). To help facilitate the economic integration of immigrants in host communities, Morocco provides access to education and vocational training to immigrants under the same conditions as national citizens (European Training Foundation, 2021).

According to the International Organization for Migration, students from sub-Saharan Africa account for 55% of university residents in Morocco (IOM, 2017). Morocco’s educational policies, which make education accessible to migrants, position the country as an important destination for knowledge production in sub-Saharan Africa. 

FEMALE MIGRATION

As a percentage of the total population in Morocco, female immigration has been fairly equal from 2010 to 2024, at between 48% and 49%. In 2010, 49.6% (35,300) of the international migrant stock were women. In 2015, the female international migrant stock stood at 49.8% (46,000). In 2020 (49,700) and 2024 (53,000), it was stable at 49.8% of the international migrant stock (UN DESA, 2025).

The data indicates that, unlike in the past when migration was seen as male-dominated, more and more women are migrating (the feminisation of migration). However, their migration comes with several challenges, firstly as females and secondly as migrants. Migrant women also face challenges such as racism and gender-based violence (Arias, 2022), which adversely affect their integration process within their host communities.

 MINORS

As a transit and destination country, Morocco is host to the mixed migration flow of children on the move, including separated, unaccompanied, and trafficked children. According to UNICEF (2021), as cited by the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 21.1% of the international migration stock in Morocco in 2010 consisted of children under the age of 18 years (UN DESA, 2025). In 2015, it declined to 20.7% and in 2020 to 19.6% (ibid).

As a transit country for most African migrants, parents who want to cross into Europe irregularly with their children often put the lives of their children in danger. For example, three Nigerian children died in a fire in a makeshift shelter in the wooded northwestern Gourougou mountain range, which borders the Spanish territory of Melilla. Committing to the Sustainable Development Goals, Morocco amended its 2011 constitution, which limited access to education only to Moroccan children, by stipulating that all minors have the right to access schooling (UNESCO, 2019). These changes saw some 75,000 undocumented migrant children enrolled in the Moroccan schooling system (ibid).

REFUGEES AND ASYLUM SEEKERS

With Morocco becoming a destination country for sub-Saharan migrants and continuing to be a transit country for migrants travelling to Europe, there has been an increase in the number of forced migrants (UNHCR, 2019). Moreover, increased restrictions in Europe have led to many migrants sheltering in Morocco.

In December 2024, 9,094 refugees and 9,784 asylum seekers were registered with the UNHCR in Morocco (UNHCR, 2024). The top five origin countries of refugees and asylum seekers in Morocco are the Syrian Arab Republic (5,399), Guinea (2,405), Senegal (1,956), Sudan (1,483), and Côte d’Ivoire (1,223) (UNHCR, 2024). The refugees and asylum seekers are mainly settled in eight cities: Rabat, Casablanca, Oujda, Nador, Temara, Kenitra, Tangier, and Marrakesh (UNHCR, 2019). Casablanca Airport is the main formal entry route into the country, as many African countries do not require a visa for short stays.

The main entry point for irregular immigration is Oujda, which borders Algeria, and outbound routes include the Strait of Gibraltar and the Spanish enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla (ibid). Within Morocco, refugees can find work in informal sectors, especially in or close to urban cities such as Rabat and Casablanca (EMHRN, 2012). Cities such as Nador, located near the Spanish enclave of Melilla and Oujda, are key deportation locations; thus, it is harder to find work in informal sectors. Women and child refugees who are living in Nador are more vulnerable to sexual violence and human trafficking (ibid). 

Those living in urban cities often have more support from civil society organisations. NGOs, such as Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF), are strengthening support in Oujda, which improves refugees’ access to health care services. In support of the socio-economic integration of refugees in Morocco, the UNHCR assisted in creating 793 micro-projects since 2017 (UNHCR, 2020). In 2019, the UNHCR supported the creation of 85 micro-enterprises for 118 refugees (ibid). Providing refugees and asylum seekers with access to basic services like schools and health care facilities is a good practice as it can help to facilitate the integration process of these vulnerable populations into their communities.

EMIGRATION

Morocco has been one of the top countries for emigration since the 1960s. In 2014, 2.8 million Morocco-born migrants resided abroad, and 2.4 million of those were in Europe (UNECA, 2014). UN DESA (2025) noted that the stock of emigrants from Morocco increased steadily from 2010, when it stood at 2.7 million, to 2.9 million in 2015 and 3.3 million in 2020. It further increased to 3.6 million in 2024 (ibid). According to United Nations (UN) data as cited by the European Training Foundation (2021), 47.5% of the emigrant population in 2020 were women. The main destinations for Moroccan emigrants before the 1980s were France, Belgium, and the Netherlands (ibid). Following the restrictions by the above-mentioned countries in the 1980s, the migration flow expanded to Italy and Spain, and more highly skilled workers moved toward the United States and Canada (UNECA, 2014).

In 2020, the top five emigration destinations for Moroccan migrants were France (1,059,918), Spain (785,884), Italy (451,960), Belgium (225,217), and the Netherlands (174,914) (European Training Foundation, 2021). The search for employment remains the main driver of migration in Morocco. In the 1950s and 1960s, Moroccan migrants were mostly low-skilled workers who worked in agriculture, construction, care, and other low-skilled sector jobs. From 1950 to 1960, 53.2% of migrants from Morocco had no qualifications, while 14.3% had some qualifications, but highly skilled profiles were rare (European Training Foundation, 2021).

There has since been a shift with more literate Moroccans migrating to the USA and Canada, mainly Quebec. Recent data indicates that Moroccans residing abroad have higher levels of education than those back home – 33.5% of migrants have completed higher education (44.7% of those being women and 28.4% men), 4.8% have undergone vocational training, 16.9% have completed primary education and only 10.2% have no school education (ibid). This shift also marks a change in perspective toward Moroccan migrant "guest workers" as they begin to anchor themselves in their destination countries as contributing members of the economy (Berriane et al., 2015). 

Unfortunately, the increasing emigration of skilled professionals is putting strain on an emerging economy like that of Morocco, which is experiencing an annual exodus of some 600 trained engineers and 1,600 IT managers (European Training Foundation, 2021). The health care sector is also affected. In 2014, 23% of anaesthetists, 19% of psychiatrists, and 10% of radiologists practising in France were from Morocco (ibid). Hence, there is a need for the government to improve the working conditions of its citizens in order to retain a majority of those trained using state resources.

LABOUR MIGRATION

The National Strategy on Immigration and Asylum (NSIA) of 2014 adopted an inclusive approach that takes into consideration the humanitarian, economic, cultural, social, integration, and foreign policy aspects of immigrants’ lives (ibid). Through the NSIA approach, regularised immigrants are provided access to vocational training and business start-ups.

These programmes have slowed down since 2018, hindering the effective use of the skill potential of immigrants as they are concentrated in the informal sector, especially in the areas of tourism, agriculture, cleaning, construction, public works, and health care (ibid). Like elsewhere on the continent, immigrants find themselves in competition with locals in low-skilled occupations, especially in rural areas.

Despite the government’s inclusive approach, as indicated in the NSIA programme, it is interesting to note that in terms of its human development strategy, migrants, immigrants, and refugees are not included in the government's main target planned action (ibid). In a country that experiences high levels of skill emigration, the government must implement labour policies that will not only make use of skilled migrants in the country but also attract skilled migrants from other parts of the world.

HUMAN TRAFFICKING

The US Department of State’s 2024 Trafficking in Persons Report labels Morocco as a Tier 2 country. This means that the government does not meet the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking, but it is making significant efforts to do so. While Morocco was commended for its efforts in combating human trafficking despite the impact of COVID-19 on government capabilities, the US State Department report also noted that Morocco reduced its efforts to investigate, prosecute, and convict traffickers in 2020 (US Department of State, 2021).

However, in 2023, the government improved its efforts in investigating, prosecuting, and convicting traffickers. According to the US Department of State (2024), in 2023, the government initiated the prosecution of 171 alleged traffickers, the highest reported since 2011 (150 alleged for sex trafficking, 32 for forced labour), and obtained convictions for 82 traffickers (62 sex trafficking convictions and 20 forced labour convictions). During the reporting year (2023), the government identified 169 trafficking victims (128 were sex trafficking victims and 42 were forced labour victims) (ibid). Out of the 169 identified victims, 52 were men, 28 boys, 44 women, and 45 girls, of which 10 were nationals from different countries (ibid).

The 2023 report also indicated that 11 victims were provided with shelter, three received medical assistance, and 39 victims received unspecified support (ibid).
Between 2010 and 2012, 35% of the survivors of sexual violence assisted by MSF were victims of human trafficking networks (Lahlou, 2018). More specifically, MSF treated 697 survivors in Morocco, 122 in Oujda, and 575 in Rabat during this time. Although the reporting of trafficking has increased, many of the reports do not include sub-Saharan migrants exposed to trafficking (US Department of State, 2024). Migrant victims of human trafficking, in most instances, are abused by their fellow countrymen. Female undocumented migrants are coerced into prostitution and forced labour in Morocco. The traffickers often keep the women in groups and in secret places that are not easily accessible. In exchange for their “protection”, women must provide sexual services to anyone introduced to them (Lahlou, 2018). It is not uncommon for women to eventually lose the support of their “protectors” and to find themselves in the streets of Rabat, Tangiers, Fez, Marrakech, and Casablanca, begging and carrying babies (ibid).

The hubs for criminal networks are Oujda, and the northern coastal town of Nador, where female migrants are forced into prostitution and begging. Particularly, Nigerian female migrants transiting through Oujda are forced into prostitution once they reach Europe. Women and children from Côte d’Ivoire, Nigeria, Cameroon, and the Democratic Republic of Congo are highly vulnerable to sex trafficking (US Department of State, 2024). 

Moroccan children are exploited in labour, sex trafficking, domestic work, and begging. Boys are forced into labour as apprentices in the artisanal and construction industries. The number of child domestic workers has decreased since 2005, although girls continue to be recruited from rural areas to work in domestic services in the cities (US Department of State, 2021). Moroccans willing to emigrate are also easily exploited by traffickers. Some of these traffickers are Moroccans, acting independently, while others belong to criminal networks that are often composed of Moroccans, Nigerians, or migrants from Côte d’Ivoire (Lahlou, 2018).
The government relies heavily on NGOs to address trafficking.

Apart from legislation being passed, the government is providing funding for programmes that aid homeless children in Meknes and Casablanca to prevent them from becoming victims of exploitation. The government refers victims to civil societies specialising in services for victims and populations that are vulnerable to trafficking. The fact that the government provides services like shelter and medication only to some victims limits its ability to provide comprehensive protection to all victims, which increases victims' vulnerability.

REMITTANCES

Remittances play a significant role in the development of the Moroccan economy. Despite the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, which restricted mobility, Moroccans have managed to sustain the flow of remittances into the country. For the past 30 years, the lowest remittance inflow to Morocco as a percentage of GDP was in 1999, when it stood at 4.7%, and the highest was in 2007, when it stood at 8.5% (World Bank, 2025).

Morocco remains one of the top receiving countries of the inflow of remittances in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. Remittance inflow in Morocco is the second biggest source of foreign exchange earnings behind exports. According to Morocco World News (2024), international remittances reached $1.6 billion in the first two months of 2024, representing an annual increase of 8.6%. In 2019, the aggregate annual remittance inflows to Algeria, Egypt, Morocco, and Tunisia were three times the size of Foreign Direct Investment into those countries (Kalantaryan & McMahon, 2021). Personal remittances received in the country increased annually from 2016, when it stood at $6.38 billion, to $11.76 billion in 2023 (World Bank, 2025). In addition to kinship ties, the government of Morocco has established a policy framework that encourages remittances and makes Moroccans living abroad hold on to their Moroccan identity.

Government policies that encourage remittances include opening Bank of Morocco branches in Europe, lifting restrictions on foreign exchange, implementing fiscal measures that favour migrants, and devaluation that increases the value of foreign currency. Other government policies that reassure remittances include the provision of dual citizenship to Moroccan citizens residing abroad (see Article 19/1 and 19/2 of the Moroccan citizenship law) and voting rights for Moroccan-born people living abroad (see Electoral Code No. 9 – 97 of 2003 as amended in 2007 by Law No. 33 – 06). The flow of remittances in Morocco helps to improve livelihoods at the household level and serves as an important source of foreign earnings that generates economic growth.

RETURNS AND RETURNEES

As a transit, origin, and destination country, Morocco receives Moroccan returnees and facilitates the return of migrants to other countries. Through the support of the Assisted Voluntary Return and Reintegration Programme (AVRR) of the IOM in collaboration with the government of Morocco, the programme has facilitated the return of an estimated 13,800 migrants in Morocco to 40 countries since 2005 (IOM, 2021).

The IOM has also assisted 1,829 returned Moroccans, and in 2020, it assisted 148 Moroccans, including 137 men, 10 women, and 1 girl, mainly from Bosnia Herzegovina, Greece, and Germany (ibid). Within Morocco, several programmes seek to facilitate the reintegration process of returnees within their host communities by raising awareness of the issues of integration, reintegration, and the needs of migrants. For example, some programmes include “Merhaba” which means welcome to Morocco, initiated by King Mohammed VI.

These programmes typically provide medical assistance, administrative assistance, and social support to returning migrants. Also, the Migration for Development Initiatives are supported by Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ – German Society for International Cooperation) on behalf of the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ). 

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

These are the main international organisations dealing with migrant-related issues in Morocco:

• United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees: Even though the Moroccan government has significantly improved legislation for refugees and asylum seekers over the past few years, the Refugee Status Determination process is handled by the UNHCR and not the Moroccan Ministry.
• The UNHCR, in partnership with the government, also assists refugees and asylum seekers with registration and protection and seeks to provide durable solutions to persons of concern. While the UNHCR's collaboration with the Ministry of the Interior is fairly effective, the UNHCR continues to advocate for the adoption of a national refugee law that will guarantee the establishment of a national asylum procedure (UNHCR, 2019).
• International Organization for Migration: The IOM helps the government of Morocco to mainstream migration into local and national policy planning.
• Other role players: International Labour Organization (ILO), the Arab League, and Doctors without Borders (Médecins Sans Frontières)