Rwanda

Historical Background

The pre-colonial, colonial, and post-colonial migration patterns in Rwanda can be ascribed to conflict rooted in ethnic political identities favouring one ethnic group over another. In the pre-colonial era (early 19th century), the Tutsi minority group under the leadership of the Tutsi King Rwabugiri, through feudalism, limited access to land to the Hutu and Twa, forcing them to migrate in search of land (Eriksson et al., 1996). The advent of colonialism saw Belgium and Germany taking over the territory as a colonial trust territory and relying on indirect rule as a form of governance that enforced the power of the monarch, which further disenfranchised the minority. However, during the early years of the decolonisation project in Africa, the situation changed as support from the colonial administration and the Catholic Church (consisting of the majority Hutu congregants), in an attempt to redress past injustices, paved the way for a peasant or Hutu revolution between 1959 to 1961. This led to a shift in power from the minority Tutsi to the independent-led majority Hutu ethnic group (ibid). The revolution saw thousands of Rwandese, mostly from the Tutsi extraction, exiling the country (ibid). This power shift created its own political and social differences and potential for future ethnic violence as those who were in exile mobilised and conducted offences through guerrilla warfare tactics. 

During the post-colonial era, various social, economic, and political events built up to the 1994 genocide, where more than 1 million people were killed and between 1.2 million and 1.5 million were displaced outside of the country (Legros et al., 2001). These events included the economic slump in the 1980s with the decline of world market prices for coffee (which is Rwanda’s prime export), the enforcement of the World Bank and International Monetary Fund structural adjustment programmes which were growth-oriented and not people-oriented (Hauschildt, 2012), the intransigence and political stance of the Hutu-led government towards the demands of the Tutsi in exile to return home, and the unwelcoming policies of some of the host governments. These events led to the creation of the Rwandese Patriotic Front (RPF), the civil war in 1990 and the eventual genocide in 1994 that saw massive displacements and killings (Eriksson et al., 1996). After the 1994 genocide, Rwanda has enjoyed political stability and economic growth, which has seen the return of millions of Rwandans who were living abroad. The country has since transformed from a refugee-origin country to a refugee-receiving country.

Migration Policies

The most important piece of legislation governing immigration and emigration in Rwanda is Law No. 17/99 of 1999, which regulates the exit, entry, and residency to and from the country. Understanding the importance of and the need to engage with the diaspora, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation created the Diaspora General Directorate in 2008. In 2009, the Ministry prepared the Rwanda Diaspora Policy, intending to mobilise and integrate Rwandans in the diaspora into the national development framework. These initiatives were introduced in four European countries (Belgium, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and Germany), enlisting the support of 82% of Rwandans who are willing to engage with development in their home country (Dona, 2019).

In 2018, Rwanda enacted a new law against human trafficking to prevent, suppress, and punish the offense of trafficking in persons and exploitation, which applied to locals and migrants, and members of their families (US Department of State, 2024). The law provides protection for victims of human trafficking, but is silent on how it will deal with irregular migrants in the context of trafficking. Also, there is the Rwandan National Migration Policy, which seeks to enhance Rwanda’s competitiveness and integration into the global economy, promote regional integration, generate economic growth, and protect the country’s security.

Rwanda is a member of several regional organisations, such as the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (CMESA), the East African Community (EAC), the Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS), the Economic Community of the Great Lakes Countries (ECGLC), and the International Conference on the Great Lakes Countries (ICGLR). These organisations play a key role in facilitating the movement of people in the region. There are also agreements between nations to facilitate the movement of their nationals, for example, the trilateral arrangement between Rwanda, Kenya, and Uganda. At the international level, Rwanda is a signatory to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 protocol, and the 1969 AU Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa. Rwanda is also a signatory to the African Union Convention for the Protection and Assistance of Internally Displaced Persons in Africa (Kampala Convention). Beyond the continent, Rwanda is a signatory to the Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea, and Air, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime.

Governmental Institutions

The Ministry in charge of Emergency Management ensures the overall protection, security, and safety of the persons of concern. The Rwanda Directorate-General of Immigration and Emigration, in consultation with ministries and stakeholders such as the Office of the President, the Ministry of Public Service and Labour, the Ministry of Trade and Industry, and the Ministry of Foreign and International Cooperation, develops and implements the country’s migration policy and strategies. Other responsibilities of the Office of the Directorate-General include providing visas, permits, and citizenship, overseeing border management, and collecting statistical data on border crossings. Other departments involved in the refugee response include the National Identification Agency and the National Refugee Committee.

The Prime Minister’s Order No 112/03 of 19/06/2015 laid down the modalities for the organisation and functioning of the National Refugee Status Determining Committee in charge of refugee status determination in Rwanda. However, in April 2024, the government enacted a new law governing refugees and applicants for refugee status in Rwanda (Law No. 042/2024), which repeals the determination process made by a committee to a single first-instance body. This process is independently done by the state.The Rwanda Development Board (RDB) seeks to create a one-stop shop for business and investment. With reference to human trafficking, the Rwanda Investigation Bureau and the Rwanda National Police oversee anti-trafficking law enforcement efforts.

Internal Migration

The concentration of economic activities in urban areas like Kigali, the income disparity between rural and urban areas, and population growth are key determinants of internal migration in Rwanda (Vital & De Dieu, 2020). The differences between rural and urban areas can partly be ascribed to uneven economic development, inter-regional disparities, and differences in living standards in the country that favours urban areas, causing people to leave the rural areas for urban areas (Musabanganji et al., 2019). There are about 1,348,168 internal migrants in Rwanda, and the main destinations are the city of Kigali (33%) and the Eastern Province (14%), which enjoys a great deal of development and a high concentration of industries (ibid). Poverty in the rural areas is far higher than in the urban areas, with the incidence of poverty in the rural areas three times higher than in the urban areas (National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda, 2018). There are more women (52.2%) than men (47.8%) among migrants of working age (16 years and older) (Musabanganji et al., 2019). The feminisation of internal migration in Rwanda explicates the increasing role women are playing outside the household economy of care.

The Southern Province has the highest percentage of migrants compared to other provinces with 32.2%, followed by the Western Province with 24.3%, and the Eastern Province with 20.2% (ibid). Agricultural-intensive communities rely heavily on manpower, which means that poor infrastructural development, poverty, and inadequate opportunities in rural areas are pushing youthful migration from these areas into the urban areas, creating massive labour shortages that can hurt the livelihoods of many households in the short term and food insecurity in the long run.

Internally Displaced Persons

There is a lack of updated data on internal displacement associated with conflict and violence and also disaster in Rwanda. At present, the main driver of internal displacement is associated with disaster. According to the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, 191,000 people were internally displaced in Rwanda between 2008 and 2023 (IDMC, 2024). Specifically in 2023, the country recorded a total of 70,000 people who were internally displaced (IDMC, 2023).

Disaster-related displacements are predominantly associated with storms and floods. For example, in 2023, landslides and floods caused by heavy rains destroyed more than 5,000 houses in the Western, Northern, and Southern Provinces of Rwanda, leaving its inhabitants in displaced situations mostly in the districts of Rubavu, Ngororero, Nyabihu, Rutsiro, Karongi, Gakenke, Burerea, Musanza, and Nyamagabe (Floodlist, 2023; IDMC, 2024). Flooding has also caused immense damage to homes, household equipment, livestock, and crops, which negatively affects livelihoods.

Immigration

The end of the Rwandan genocide of 1994 brought relative political stability to the country. It attracted immigrants who wished to explore the rich history of the country and its tourist destinations.

According to the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, the stock of international migrants in Rwanda increased from 426,900 in 2010 to 514,600 in 2015, then dropped slightly from 514,600 in 2015 to 513,900 in 2020 and to 513,300 in 2024, representing 3.6% of the total population (UN DESA, 2025). The top five origin countries of immigrants in Rwanda are the Democratic Republic of Congo (250,000), Burundi (135,000), Uganda (95,000), Tanzania (45,000), and a few thousand from Kenya (Government of the Republic of Rwanda, 2024).

The statistics indicate that most of the international migrants in Rwanda are from neighbouring countries, which reflects the desired objectives of the regional agreements to which Rwanda is a signatory and which seek to facilitate the movement of people within the regional formation.

Female Migration

Although there is a paucity of literature on migrant women in Rwanda, the government and international organisations indicate that the gender distribution of migrants is fairly equal as a percentage of the migration stock. The International Organization for Migration (IOM) reported that in 2017, as a percentage of the international migration stock, female migrants constituted 50.2%, and this figure dropped slightly, as indicated by the World Bank, to 50% in 2019 (IOM, 2024; World Bank, 2024). According to the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, the female immigrant population stock in Rwanda stood at 212,900 in 2010, peaked at 258,300 in 2015, and dropped slowly to 254,000 in 2020 and 253,700 in 2024 (UN DESA, 2025). Despite the slight decline, women still constitute slightly more than 50% of the immigration stock in Rwanda, suggesting the feminisation of immigration into Rwanda.

Children

There is a lack of reliable statistics on migrant children in Rwanda. According to the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF, n.d.), children constitute more than 50% of the refugee population in Rwanda. Most refugees and asylum seekers’ children are supported by international organisations like the UNHCR. Although these children have access to social services such as education and health care, some of these services are subsidised by international organisations. The UNHCR supports the education of refugees and asylum seekers' children and if there are cuts in funding, it has a direct and dire impact on the refugee and asylum seeker population (Global Compact on Refugees, 2024; UNHCR, 2001-2024). For example, in 2023, reduced funding for education affected 553 refugee schoolchildren who qualified to attend boarding schools (Associated Press News, 2023). Although the government seeks to provide access to services to migrant children, it is limited by financial constraints, which creates a gap that is typically filled by international organisations like the UNHCR.

Refugees and Asylum Seekers

Rwanda has been a source country of refugees, especially during the genocide (1994-1997). With the end of the genocide and peace talks initiated, Rwanda is currently more of a migrant-receiving country. The country has been hosting refugees for almost two decades and coordinates the refugee response with the UNHCR, providing land to establish refugee camps and ensuring camp management and security. Rwanda has six refugee camps (Mahama, Nyabiheke, Gihembe, Kiziba, Mugombwa, and Karongi) and four refugee transit centres (Nkamira, Nyanza, Bugesera, and Gatore).

According to the UNHCR (2025), as of February 2025, there were 135,590 people of concern in Rwanda, of which more than 135,000 were refugees and asylum seekers. These people of concern, including refugees and asylum seekers, are predominantly from the Democratic Republic of Congo (82,589) and Burundi (51,978). The UNHCR (2024a) noted that 34% of the refugee population were born in Rwanda. The majority of the refugees and asylum seekers live in five refugee camps, namely Mahama (67,900), Kigeme (14,650), Kiziba (13,966), Mugombwa (12,057), and Nyabiheke (11,769) (UNHCR, 2025). The others live in urban areas (Kigali, Nyamata, Huye), a transit centre (Nkamira) or reception centre (Bugesera) (ibid). In February 2018, the government of Rwanda officially adhered to the Comprehensive Refugee Response Framework (CRRF), providing a favourable protection environment for refugees. Refugees have the de facto right to work, open borders, and access to durable solutions (resettlement, local integration, and return) (UNHCR, 2019). However, the non-recognition of refugee status in the absence of a legal document by some employers makes it very difficult for permit holders to gain employment (Forced Migration Review, 2024).

Since 2019, as part of its commitment to the Emergency Transit Mechanism agreed upon by the government of Rwanda, the UNHCR, and the African Union, over 2,000 refugees and asylum seekers have been evacuated from Libya to Rwanda (UNHCR, 2024b). The evacuees include women, men, children, and babies from Eritrea, Ethiopia, Sudan, and South Sudan. The evacuees go through a process of registration, verification, and refugee status determination. After the process, they are submitted for resettlement to a third country or given the option to return home or integrate into Rwanda (ibid).

Countries such as the UK consider Rwanda as a “safe haven” for refugees and asylum seekers. In this context, the UK has entered into a treaty with Rwanda to relocate UK asylum seekers to be processed in Rwanda (McKinney et al., 2024). Its consideration has been widely criticised and subjected to litigation, with the Supreme Court finding its action illegal and unlawful. For Rwanda to realise its goals of welcoming, promoting, and protecting refugees and asylum seekers, as informed by its policies, the country needs to introduce sensitisation programmes to inform all stakeholders and the population of its policy framework.

Emigration

The emigration stock in Rwanda has been unstable over the past 24 years. It was 290,800 in 2010, went up to 496,400 in 2015, dropped to 486,800 in 2020, and peaked at 539,000 in 2024. Before 2020, the top five destination countries for Rwandan emigrants were the DRC (254,225), Burundi (71,294), Uganda (70,635), the Republic of Congo (25,891), and Belgium (14,930) (EUDiF, 2020). Like in most other African countries, one of the main drivers of emigration from Rwanda is the search for better opportunities by both skilled and unskilled emigrants. For example, a study conducted in four European countries (Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom) revealed that of the 47,357 Rwandans who live in these European countries, 68% are skilled immigrants with at least a degree qualification (IOM, 2019). They are mostly between the ages of 20 and 40 with a gender balance (ibid). Also, there are clear indications that almost half of the medical students in Rwanda wish to travel abroad because of poor working conditions and poor remuneration in the country. Despite the scarcity of medical practitioners and with a 1:16,046 patient-to-doctor ratio, many Rwandan medical students (42.7%) desire to work and study abroad (Alu Global Focus, 2019). The 2023 human flight and brain drain in Rwanda is slightly above the world average of 5.17 index points (The Global Economy, 2024). Rwanda is currently at 6.5 index points (ibid). Although emigration might have a positive direct impact on the families of the emigrants in terms of remittance flow, their emigration and the loss of skills are hurting the economy.

Labour Migration

After the devastating effects of the genocide, which ended in 1994, there was an urgent need for development in Rwanda. The government initiated a new development strategy in early 2000, which emphasised the importation of skilled labour and foreign direct investment into the country, attracting labour migrants (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development [OECD], 2018). The country has since enjoyed substantial economic growth of 7.6% in the first three quarters of 2023, with a growing industrial sector (World Bank, 2024), thus positioning itself as one of the attractive destinations for labour migration in East Africa, the Horn of Africa and Africa as a whole.

To realise the full potential of labour migration as a contributor to the country’s economy, Rwanda was party to several regional agreements fostering regional cooperation for sustainable development and the protection of the rights of workers within the East and Horn of Africa (IOM, 2022). One such regional arrangement is the East African Community (EAC), in which Rwanda and Kenya have abolished work permit fees for East African nationals in their respective countries. Although there is no disaggregated data to show the specific economic activities in which migrants are involved, most migrant workers in Rwanda work in the productive sectors of the economy, largely concentrated in Kigali and a few other urban areas (OECD, 2018). Also, some migrants are involved in informal cross-border trading between Rwanda and its neighbours, which contributes to the growth of the Rwandan economy. For example, on average, informal exports constitute about 12% of total exports, whereas imports constitute around 3% of total imports (International Monetary Fund [IMF], n.d.). Rwanda is therefore one of the African countries that seek to facilitate the free movement of people within the region, as it recognises the role of migrant labour in the economic development of the migrants’ host countries.

Human Trafficking

The government of Rwanda and various international organisations are at the forefront of fighting human trafficking in the country. Here, unemployment is one of the main drivers of human trafficking. Because of the growing rate of youth unemployment in Rwanda (20.6%), youths easily become victims of human trafficking as traffickers deceive them with false promises of better opportunities for employment in neighbouring countries (Borgen Project, 2020). Traffickers also target vulnerable populations such as orphaned children, children with disabilities, unemployed adults, and internally displaced persons (ibid). Even though unemployment is higher among women than men, the majority of those trafficked are women (77.67%) (ibid). They are targeted because of their lower education levels and the increased demand for sexual slavery (ibid).

Rwanda is a Tier 2 country as it does not entirely meet the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking despite efforts to do so. According to the US Department of State (2024), in the reporting year, the government identified 75 trafficking victims (28 for sex trafficking, 45 for labour trafficking and two for unspecified forms of trafficking), initiated 21 trafficking investigations involving 40 suspects (nine sex trafficking cases, and one unspecified form of trafficking), and prosecuted 19 defendants in 15 cases and convicted 24 traffickers. The trafficking of people in Rwanda is also encouraged by the ease with which traffickers can move victims across borders due to a trilateral agreement among the governments of Kenya, Rwanda, and Uganda which allows immigrants to use national identification instead of passports.

Victims of human trafficking in Rwanda include children between the ages of 13 and 18 who are lured into commercial sex and begging. Men and women are forced into sex trafficking, and labour in domestic work and in the agricultural, mining, industrial, and service sectors (ibid). Common destination countries for victims of human trafficking from Rwanda via Uganda and Tanzania include East Africa, Southern Africa, the Middle East, and Asia (ibid).

The government operates a network of 44 one-stop centres to assist gender-based violence (GBV) and trafficking victims (ibid). These centres, located in hospitals and district capitals, provide short-term shelter and psycho-social, medical, and legal services to victims for three days; thereafter, they are referred to long-term shelter or independent living options.

Remittances

The institutional development in Rwanda since the genocide has created formal channels that facilitate the flow of remittances in the country. The political and economic stability, coupled with the diaspora engagement policy which relies on the diaspora constituting a key component in the socio-economic development of the country, has boosted the diaspora's confidence and willingness to invest in the country.

According to the World Bank (2024), personal remittances received have increased from $106,471,877 in 2010 to a record high of $553,813,293 in 2023, and as a percentage of the gross domestic product (GDP), it has increased from 1,7% in 2010 to a record high of 3.6% in 2022. In a country where poverty is rift with more than half of the population (56.5%) living on less than $1.90 a day (Taylor, 2024), households with remitters experience an increase in household income and consumption, which increases access to education and health care and improves living standards.

Returns and Returnees

Since the end of the Rwandan genocide in 1994, the country has enjoyed remarkable political stability and socio-economic growth. Although poverty is still a major concern, as indicated above (see remittances), many displaced Rwandans, especially in neighbouring countries, have opted to come back home. The decision to return home has also been precipitated by the 2013 UNHCR cessation clause on Rwandan refugees. According to the Minister in charge of Emergency Management, since the end of hostilities in 1994, the country has received more than 3.5 million Rwandan refugees, with an estimated 16,643 from the Democratic Republic of Congo (Government of the Republic of Rwanda, 2024). The government has launched several projects, some in partnership with international organisations such as the UNHCR, to facilitate the return and reintegration process of Rwandans living abroad. These projects include the Enhancing Socio-Economic Opportunities for Rwandan Returnees and the Sustainable Return and Reintegration of Rwanda Returnees which allow returnees to enjoy the rights and development programmes like any other Rwandan (Government of the Republic of Rwanda, 2024). Despite the government’s efforts to reintegrate returnees into their communities, the returnees are confronted with challenges such as low educational levels, inadequate shelters, and lack of access to livelihood opportunities (UNHCR, 2020). Also, some of the returnees’ education levels are low because of long periods of time in exile. These returnees will not be able to benefit from some of the programmes initiated by the government as these programmes are not tailored to meet their needs.

International Organisations

Various international organisations are involved in migration-related issues in Rwanda:

• United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees and the International Organization for Migration: The UNHCR and the IOM, in partnership with the Ministry in charge of Emergency Management and other stakeholders, deliver multi-sector assistance to refugees. They also support the government in implementing projects focused on counter-trafficking, immigration, and border management, the return and reintegration of Rwandan nationals and refugee resettlement to third countries, labour migration, and human development. To enhance their protection delivery, the UNHCR collaborates and partners with key government institutions such as the Ministry of Education, the Rwanda Education Board, and the Rwanda National Police. The UNHCR also liaises with the District Authorities, particularly in the areas where refugee camps are located. 
• Other project partners: These include Adventist Development and Relief Agency Rwanda (ADRA), Africa Humanitarian Action (AHA), American Refugee Committee (ARC), Global Humanitarian and Development Foundation (GHDF), Humanity and Inclusion, Kepler, Legal Aid Forum, Oxfam, Plan International, Save the Children, and World Vision Rwanda.